Glycemic Index of Millets & Diabetes: The Complete Evidence Review

Abstract

Background. Millets are widely promoted in India and internationally as "low glycemic index" foods suitable for diabetes. Traditional medicine systems, especially Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), have recommended small grains for diabetes-like conditions for centuries. This paper asks how well those claims hold up.

Methods. We collected every human glycemic index (GI) value we could verify for finger millet, pearl millet, sorghum, foxtail, little, kodo, barnyard, proso, browntop, teff, fonio and Job's tears. We then reviewed systematic reviews and clinical trials of millets in type 2, pre- and gestational diabetes, and current Indian and American guidelines. Finally, we read classical Ayurvedic texts in published translations, alongside peer-reviewed literature on Ayurveda, TCM, Persian, Siddha and African food traditions. Every number and citation was checked against the original abstract, full text or official document.

Results. Measured GI values for millet foods range from 35.6 to 100. Across 39 studies, the pooled mean was 52.7 ¹, but several rigorous Indian studies found high GI (above 70) for common preparations such as ragi mudde, sorghum and pearl millet roti, and cooked unpolished foxtail and little millet ^2,3. Preparation was a major determinant: porridge, flaking, fine milling, pre-soaking and prolonged steaming raised GI, while coarse milling, intact grains, heat treatment followed by cooling and the addition of legumes lowered it. Short-term studies in people with diabetes consistently show smaller post-meal glucose rises with some millet foods. Long-term evidence is limited to small, mostly uncontrolled studies, and a 224-woman randomised trial in gestational diabetes did not meet its primary outcome ¹⁰. Classical Ayurveda recommends barley-based diets with old "grass grains" (trina dhanya) for prameha but also lists new millets eaten in excess among its causes. TCM records foxtail millet as a food for xiaoke, usually as congee, a form that modern studies show produces the highest glucose response.

Conclusion. Millets can be a useful part of a diabetes diet, but "millet" is not a guarantee of low GI. The form, the milling, the portion and what the millet is eaten with matter as much as the grain. Blanket claims that millets are "low GI" or "good for diabetics" are not supported as stated. This is general information, not medical advice.

1. Why this paper

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2023 the International Year of Millets ¹¹. The FAO's official page for that year states that millets have "a low glycaemic index" and are "a good option for people with high-blood sugar" ¹². Packaged millet foods now carry "low GI" and "diabetic friendly" claims, and many people with diabetes have switched from rice to millets on that promise.

The promise is partly true. It is also, in important ways, misleading. One of India's leading GI laboratories, at the Madras Diabetes Research Foundation (MDRF), found that ragi mudde, the everyday stiff porridge ball of Karnataka, has a GI of 98.2, almost the same as pure glucose. Their conclusion was blunt: "Merely being a whole grain-based food does not qualify for a lower GI" ².

This paper puts every verified number in one place, explains why they differ, sets out what clinical trials actually show, and compares that evidence with what Ayurveda, Chinese medicine and other traditions say. Where tradition and science agree, we say so. Where they conflict, we say that too.

2. GI and GL: how they are measured

Glycemic index (GI) compares the rise in blood glucose over two hours after eating a portion of food containing 50 g of available carbohydrate with the rise after 50 g of pure glucose (GI = 100). Some older studies use white bread as the reference (bread = 100). White bread itself has a GI of about 75 on the glucose scale ¹³, so bread-scale values run higher and cannot be compared directly with glucose-scale values. This paper labels the reference food for every value.

GI bands as used by Anitha et al. and the International GI Tables ^1,13. GL bands are the cut-offs conventionally used alongside them.

Glycemic load (GL) multiplies GI by the grams of available carbohydrate actually eaten, divided by 100. GL captures portion size. A low-GI food eaten in a large heap can still produce a high GL.

Three things make GI values noisy, and they matter for millets in particular:

• Small studies. Good practice calls for 10 or more healthy volunteers. Anitha and colleagues found that "some studies had as few as three subjects" and that only a few followed the ISO 2010 GI standard ¹.
• The food, not the grain, is tested. "Foxtail millet" can mean cooked whole grain, a dosa, a biscuit or a porridge. The GI belongs to the dish.
• Individual variation. Even in the same study, the standard deviation can be half the mean ¹⁴.

3. The millet family and its names

"Millet" is not a botanical group. It is a cultural label for small-seeded grasses. Sorghum and pearl millet are the large-grained "major millets"; foxtail, little, kodo, barnyard, proso and browntop are the "minor millets"; teff and fonio are African small grains; Job's tears (adlay) is a large-seeded grass often grouped with them.

Sanskrit identifications from the English translation of Charaka Samhita, Sutrasthana 27, and from Tavhare 2024 ^15,16. The same online translation identifies shyamaka as barnyard millet in one chapter and as foxtail millet in another, so treat classical identifications as provisional. Regional names vary by district.

4. Glycemic index of millets: every verified value

Table 3 lists every human GI value for a millet food that we could verify in a primary paper. Values marked † come from abstracts that did not state the number of volunteers or the reference food, so treat them with more caution. Values quoted only second-hand in other papers are excluded from the table and discussed in the text.

† Number of volunteers and/or reference food not stated in the abstract, and full text not openly available. White-bread-scale values are not comparable with glucose-scale values. Standard errors and deviations as reported by each paper.

Figure 1. Glucose-referenced GI values from Table 3 with comparison foods. Comparison values: brown and white rice (BPT variety) from Malavika 2020 ³; wheat chapatti, white bread and rolled-oat porridge from the 2008 International GI Tables ¹³.

Millets with no reliable GI value

• Kodo millet. We found no primary paper reporting a GI number we could check. A 1993 study in 36 people with diabetes reported that kodo (varagu) gave a "significantly lower" GI than ragi, without a usable number in the abstract ²⁸. A figure of 68 ± 8 for pressure-cooked kodo is quoted second-hand by Malavika and colleagues ³.
• Proso millet. No GI has been published. One Canadian study measured the glucose response to proso couscous, biscuit, extruded snack and porridge, and found that "glycaemic response of the products was not dependent on the grain type, but rather product matrix" ²⁹.
• Browntop millet. No human study. Laboratory work shows that flaking browntop and other minor millets raises the rapidly digestible starch and lowers resistant starch ³⁰.
• Fonio. The often-quoted value of 42 comes from a single 2011 study that is not indexed in PubMed; we could not verify it ¹.

5. What the meta-analysis says, and its limits

The most cited source for "millets are low GI" is a 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis led by ICRISAT scientists. It pooled 39 studies with 111 GI observations and found a mean millet GI of 52.7 ± 10.3, about 30% lower than milled rice and refined wheat ¹.

Source: Anitha et al. 2021, Table 2 ¹. No proso millet row is given, although the text discusses proso.

The review is useful, but its averages hide the spread shown in Table 3. Five points matter when quoting it:

1. Averages mix preparations. A mean of 61.1 for finger millet sits between a stone-ground roti of 44 and a mudde of 98.2. Nobody eats an average.
2. Many included studies were small. The authors note studies with as few as three volunteers and few following the ISO protocol ¹.
3. Some means rest on very few studies. Teff and fonio rest essentially on one study each; the teff value of 35.6 is the same as the single Ethiopian injera study ⁴.
4. Some numbers do not match their sources. The review reports prediabetic HbA1c falling "from 6.65 ± 0.4 to 5.67 ± 0.4%" citing Geetha 2020, but Geetha's own abstract reports 6.14 ± 0.30 to 5.67 ± 0.40 ²⁷.
5. Later high-quality Indian data disagree. MDRF's 2020 and 2022 studies, which follow international protocols, found high GI for unpolished foxtail and little millet and for ragi, sorghum and pearl millet staples ^3,2.

6. Why the same millet gives a different GI

If one lesson stands out from the evidence, it is this: what you do to a millet matters as much as which millet you choose. Figure 2 shows three single-study comparisons where only the preparation changed.

Figure 2. Data from Ren 2016, Jayasinghe 2013 and Ugare 2014 ^7,6,5.

The biochemistry is consistent. Millets have relatively little amylose and therefore little resistant starch; MDRF measured only 0.7 g of resistant starch per 100 g in ragi mudde ². In the laboratory, the predicted GI of minor millets correlated strongly and negatively with resistant starch (r = −0.96) and dietary fibre (r = −0.89) ³⁸. Anything that gelatinises the starch completely, such as long boiling, fine grinding or soaking, lets digestive enzymes work fast. Anything that keeps grain structure intact, or lets starch re-crystallise on cooling, slows them down.

7. Glycemic load, portions and the total-carbohydrate trap

GI says how fast a carbohydrate raises glucose. It says nothing about how much carbohydrate is on the plate. The MDRF study reported both:

Source: Shobana et al. 2022, Table III ².

Two lessons follow. First, a portion of ragi mudde carrying 50 g of carbohydrate weighs only about 187 g cooked, yet delivers a glycemic load of 49, about four times that of a chickpea sundal with the same carbohydrate. Second, the legume dishes had the lowest GI and GL in the study, which is why the authors recommend "judicious planning of accompaniments using low GI legumes" ².

The national ICMR-INDIAB survey of 18,090 Indian adults adds a sobering population-level finding: "Replacing refined cereals with whole wheat or millet flour without decreasing overall carbohydrate quantity was not associated with lower risk for T2D" ³⁹. In other words, swapping rice for ragi while eating the same mountain of carbohydrate is unlikely to help.

8. Millets and diabetes: the clinical trials

GI tests use healthy volunteers and a single meal. The question people with diabetes actually ask is different: will eating millets regularly improve my blood sugar? Here the evidence is thinner than the marketing suggests.

Systematic reviews

• Anitha 2021 (65 studies): long-term millet intake lowered fasting glucose by 12% and post-meal glucose by 15% in people with diabetes, and HbA1c fell from 8.1% to 7.0% across six long-term studies. Most included studies were small and not randomised ¹.
• Almaski 2019 (19 studies, 482 adults with type 2 diabetes): millet had "a beneficial effect on fasting and post-prandial blood glucose", but the studies were "mostly reports not of randomized clinical trials but of primary pilot trials" ⁴⁰.
• Dunna 2026 (20 studies, 11 in meta-analysis): millets reduced the after-meal glucose response, most strongly finger millet; pearl millet also helped, but sorghum did not ⁴¹.
• Naik 2026: only six studies met the criteria; "both millet type and preparation methods influenced glycemic response" ⁴².
• Magi 2024 (29 RCTs of ancient grains in diabetes): only one millet trial qualified, and pooled millet results "did not show significant effects" ⁴³.
• Sorghum reviews: two systematic reviews found sorghum attenuated blood glucose responses ^44,45.

Individual trials in people with diabetes or prediabetes

Large observational data point the same way: helpful in context, not magic. In the China Kadoorie Biobank (461,047 adults), regular eaters of "coarse grains" (millet, corn and sorghum together) had a 12% lower risk of diabetes ⁵⁵. But in India's INDIAB survey, simply swapping refined cereals for millet flour without reducing total carbohydrate showed no protective association ³⁹.

9. What official guidelines say

• ICMR-NIN Dietary Guidelines for Indians, 2024: at least half of cereals should be whole grains "such as millets", and "millets can be consumed to the extent of 30%–40% of total recommended cereals in raw weight" (p. 6). A table footnote on p. 11 gives 20–30% instead, so the guideline is not internally consistent. It lists whole grains including millets among foods that help "maintain levels of blood glucose", and its GI annex warns that "the GI and GL are only indicative" ⁵⁶.
• ICMR Guidelines for Management of Type 2 Diabetes, 2018: "from clinical point of view it is important to manage total carbohydrate", with carbohydrate preferably from high-fibre foods such as "whole grains (unpolished cereals and millets), legumes" ⁵⁷.
• American Diabetes Association Standards of Care 2026: emphasises whole grains and high-fibre, minimally processed carbohydrate (at least 14 g fibre per 1,000 kcal). It does not mention millets, and notes "mixed effects of GI and GL on fasting glucose levels and A1C" ⁵⁸.

No guideline we found recommends any specific millet as a diabetes treatment.

10. Millet-by-millet scorecard for diabetes

11. Ayurveda: millets in prameha (Gata)

Gata writes: Ayurveda does not describe "diabetes" as modern medicine does. Its nearest category is prameha, a group of urinary disorders of which madhumeha ("honey urine") is one, closely linked in the texts to excess kapha and medas (fat). Modern Ayurvedic scholars draw a parallel between the two patient types the texts describe and today's type 2 and type 1 diabetes ⁶⁰. Below I summarise what the classical texts say, based on published English translations. These are summaries, not verse translations of my own.

How the classics describe millets

Charaka groups the small grass grains as trina dhanya and Sushruta as kudhanya ("lesser grains") ^15,61. In Charaka's chapter on food and drink (Sutrasthana 27, verse 16), the koradusha–shyamaka group is described as astringent and sweet in taste, light, cooling, drying and binding, aggravating vata while reducing kapha and pitta ¹⁵. Sushruta, describing the same family, says these grains "generate heat", are "parchifying" and "subdue the Kapha" but "enrage the bodily Vayu" ⁶¹. The two great texts therefore disagree on whether millets are heating or cooling, but agree that they are drying, light and kapha-reducing.

What the classics recommend for prameha

• Charaka, Chikitsasthana 6 (Prameha Chikitsa): the online translation summarises the diet as "Shashtika rice with shyamaka etc., truna dhanya with yava as predominant food". Barley (yava) is the centre of the diet, in forms such as cooked barley without fat, barley gruel, roasted barley flour (saktu) and barley cakes. People who regularly eat roasted barley, barley flour, green gram and amla are said not to develop prameha ¹⁵.
• Two kinds of patient: Charaka distinguishes the obese and strong, who need depletion (apatarpana), from the emaciated and weak, who need nourishment (santarpana), warning that depletion harms the second group ¹⁵.
• Millets as a cause: Charaka's Prameha Nidana lists newly harvested grains, including chinaka and uddalaka, eaten too often and in excess among the causes of kaphaja prameha ¹⁵. The same grains that are wholesome when old and dry become harmful when new and overeaten.
• Sushruta, Chikitsasthana 11: recommends old rice, barley, wheat, kodrava and uddalaka, with green gram, horse gram and other pulses, cooked without ghee. For a wealthy patient, shyamaka and astringent fruits are recommended ⁶².

Ayurvedic cautions

Modern Ayurvedic writers advise that because millets are drying (ruksha) and vata-aggravating, they should be eaten with ghee or oil, not taken exclusively for long periods, and given cautiously to thin or weak people; they single out ragi as less drying, and advise caution with ragi for people with kidney stones ¹⁶. One small 1996 pilot in seven healthy people found the smallest blood glucose rise after barley chapati among the grains tested, and the authors concluded barley suited prameha ⁶³. Ayurvedic diet-and-lifestyle trials in madhumeha have used barley, green gram and amla as their core ⁶⁴.

A note on kodo

Classical lexicons call kodrava vishajit or visahara, "conquering poison" ^65,66. Modern science found the opposite risk: kodo grain infected by Aspergillus moulds can contain cyclopiazonic acid and cause "kodua poisoning" in people ^67,68. India's millet research institute recommends pre- and post-harvest management to keep kodo safe ⁶⁹.

12. Traditional Chinese Medicine: millet in xiaoke

The TCM category closest to diabetes is xiaoke ("wasting-thirst"), a syndrome of thirst, hunger, frequent urination and weight loss, attributed to yin deficiency and "dryness-heat", and historically associated with rich, fatty diets in wealthy people ⁷⁰. A review of 54 classical materia medica monographs lists millet, barley, foxtail millet seed, wheat and mung bean among foods used for xiaoke ⁷⁰.

• Foxtail millet (sumi): the classical Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing and the Tang-dynasty Bei Ji Qian Jin Yao Fang are reported to list foxtail millet as a "medicinal food" (yao-shan) for xiaoke, usually made into congee, soup or juice. The same modern review cautions that the dosage of such foods "should be strictly controlled" ⁷¹.
• Spleen and stomach: foxtail millet "has long been used to treat vacuity heat of spleen and stomach … and diabetes mellitus in traditional Chinese medicine" ⁷². Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica (1578) is cited as calling millet porridge "exceedingly nourishing for the stomach" ⁷³.
• Job's tears (yiyiren): described as sweet and bland, cool in nature, entering the spleen, stomach and lung meridians, used with caution in yin deficiency ⁷⁴.

The central conflict with modern evidence is the form. TCM's preferred millet preparation for the sick is long-cooked congee. In human testing, foxtail millet porridge produced the highest GI of all foxtail preparations (93.6, against 64.4 for the cooked grain) ⁷, and a 2026 crossover trial found rice porridge "induces a more rapid and higher postprandial glucose response than cooked rice despite identical carbohydrate content" ³¹.

13. Persian, Siddha, African and Japanese traditions

• Persian (the root of Unani medicine): a 2025 review of medieval Persian diabetes remedies classifies barley as cold and dry. It lists a grain it identifies as finger millet as warm and dry, but the same table uses a near-identical name for cannabis, so that identification is doubtful ⁷⁵.
• Siddha: we found no verifiable classical Siddha statement on millets for madhumegam. We therefore make no claim.
• West Africa: fonio (acha) is "used in some areas for managing diabetes", a folk use reported in a food science review ⁷⁶. It has not been tested in diabetes trials.
• East Africa: Ethiopian teff injera tested low GI in people ⁴, but laboratory estimates for teff porridge and injera were medium to very high ⁵⁹. In Sudan, millet porridge (acida) gave one of the lowest glucose responses in people with diabetes ⁵¹; in Kenya, millet porridge gave the highest ⁵².
• Japan: Japanese barnyard millet (hie) has a long agricultural history, but we found no verified traditional-medicine claim about it for diabetes.

14. Science vs tradition: where they agree and conflict

15. Safety and cautions

• Medicines first. If you take insulin or sulfonylurea tablets, a big change in diet can move your blood sugar in either direction. Change medicines only with your doctor, and do not relax portions because a food is labelled "millet".
• Kodo poisoning. Avoid kodo that looks discoloured, smells musty or tastes bitter; buy well-cleaned grain from reliable sources ^67,69.
• Goitre and pearl millet. Laboratory and animal work showed that flavonoids in pearl millet can inhibit thyroid function, particularly where iodine is deficient ⁷⁸, and a Sudanese study named millet as a "possible" factor ⁷⁹. A 2024 systematic review found the evidence "not compelling and strong enough to assert that pearl millet consumed as part of a balanced diet can lead to goiter" ⁸⁰. Using iodised salt is the practical safeguard.
• Oxalate. Finger millet oxalate values vary more than tenfold between studies ^81,82. We found no human study linking ragi to kidney stones; people with a history of oxalate stones should ask their doctor.
• Iron and zinc. Phytate and polyphenols in millets limit mineral absorption; low-phytate ragi gave almost three times the iron absorption of high-phytate ragi in Indian women ⁸³. Sprouting and fermentation help ^84,85.
• Mycotoxins. Village samples of pearl millet in Uttar Pradesh frequently exceeded fumonisin limits ⁸⁶. Store grain dry and discard mouldy stock.
• Gluten. Millets are naturally gluten-free, but cross-contact during milling is possible.

16. How to eat millets with diabetes: a practical guide

Bringing the evidence together, these are the habits most likely to help. Each links back to the studies above.

1. Prefer intact grain to porridge. Cook foxtail, little, kodo or barnyard millet like rice, with less water, rather than as kanji, congee or mudde ^7,2.
2. Choose coarse, stone-ground flour. Coarser flour gave ragi roti a GI of 44 against 59 for finely milled flour ⁶.
3. Always pair with legumes and vegetables. Sorghum idli with black gram (61.3) beat sorghum roti (84.1); millet–legume–fenugreek dishes tested 17.6–35.0 ^2,26.
4. Cook ahead and cool. Refrigerated cooked millet had a 20.6% lower GI than fresh ³⁵; heat-treated barnyard millet tested lower ⁵.
5. Watch the portion, not just the grain. Reduce total carbohydrate; swapping without cutting the quantity showed no benefit at population level ³⁹.
6. Rotate millets, and keep barley and pulses in the mix. Different millets and preparations behave differently ⁴²; Ayurveda's barley-and-green-gram diet is an evidence-friendly pattern ^15,64.
7. Prefer unpolished grain where possible, but do not assume "unpolished" means low GI ^3,33.
8. Test your own response. A glucometer reading two hours after a new millet meal tells you more about your body than any table.

17. Research gaps

• No verified human GI for kodo, proso, browntop or fonio, and none for popped millet, millet malt or millet idli other than sorghum.
• No adequately powered, long-term randomised trial of any single millet in type 2 diabetes with HbA1c as the primary outcome.
• Indian GI values for everyday home preparations (navane bisibelebath, korra upma, bajra khichdi) measured to the ISO standard.
• Classical-text scholarship on which Sanskrit and Chinese grain names correspond to which modern species.
• Testing traditional preparation rules, such as aged grain and dry roasting, in controlled glucose studies.

18. How this paper was prepared

This paper was researched and written by Bhāvi and Gata, Dhatu Organics' AI-assisted research personas (see Bhāvi and Gata). We searched PubMed and PubMed Central through NCBI's E-utilities for human glycemic index studies of each millet, systematic reviews and trials of millets in diabetes, and peer-reviewed papers on millets in Ayurveda and Chinese medicine, up to November 2026. Every GI value was read in the abstract or full text of the original paper; values available only second-hand are labelled. Every DOI was checked against Crossref. Guidelines were read in their official PDFs. Classical Ayurvedic content was read in published English translations of the Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas and is summarised, not newly translated. Where sources disagreed, we report both.

Limitations. Many GI studies are small and several were available only as abstracts. We did not access the 2021 International GI Tables supplement. Classical plant identifications are uncertain. This is a narrative evidence review, not a formal systematic review, and it has not been peer reviewed. Corrections are welcome and will be logged with a new version number.

Frequently asked questions

What is the glycemic index of millets?

It depends on the millet and the preparation. A 2021 meta-analysis found an average of 52.7, but individual human studies range from 35.6 for teff injera to 98.2 for ragi mudde. Porridges and fine-flour dishes tend to be high; intact grain, coarse flour and legume combinations tend to be lower.

Which millet has the lowest glycemic index?

Among verified human studies, teff injera (35.6) and heat-treated barnyard millet (41.7) had the lowest values. In the 2021 meta-analysis, teff, fonio and barnyard millet had the lowest averages, though each rests on very few studies.

Is ragi good for diabetes?

Ragi can be part of a diabetes diet, but ragi mudde tested at a GI of 98.2 in a 2022 Indian study. Coarse, stone-ground ragi roti eaten with dal and vegetables is a better choice than mudde, porridge or malt drinks.

Is foxtail millet good for diabetics?

Foxtail millet dosa lowered after-meal glucose compared with rice dosa in people with type 2 diabetes, and a 12-week study in prediabetes showed modest falls in blood glucose. But cooked unpolished foxtail millet rice tested high GI (88.6) in India, so portion and pairing still matter.

Is jowar roti good for diabetes?

Sorghum (jowar) roti had a high GI of 84.1 in a 2022 Indian study, higher than wheat dosa. Sorghum idli made with black gram scored 61.3. A 2026 meta-analysis found no significant after-meal benefit for sorghum.

Can millets reverse or cure diabetes?

No study has shown that millets reverse or cure diabetes. They can modestly lower after-meal glucose when they replace refined rice or wheat in a portion-controlled, high-fibre diet. Keep taking prescribed medicines unless your doctor advises otherwise.

Are millets better than brown rice for diabetes?

Not automatically. Brown rice tested at 58.7 in the same Indian laboratory where cooked unpolished foxtail and little millet tested at 88.6. Both are better choices than polished white rice; preparation and portion decide the outcome.

What does Ayurveda say about millets for diabetes?

Classical Ayurveda recommends a barley-centred diet with old "grass grains" (trina dhanya) such as shyamaka and kodrava for prameha, prepared dry and without fat. It also lists new millets eaten in excess among the causes of prameha, and warns that millets aggravate vata and suit obese rather than thin patients.

This paper is for general information and education. It is not medical advice and does not replace advice from your doctor, diabetologist or registered dietitian. Do not stop or change diabetes medicines on the basis of this article.

How to cite this paper

The full paper is archived as a PDF on Zenodo under a CC BY 4.0 licence. You are welcome to quote figures and tables with a link back to this page or the DOI. Version history: v1.0, 10 November 2026, first publication; archived on Zenodo 11 November 2026.

---

References

1. Anitha S, Kane-Potaka J, Tsusaka TW, et al. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Potential of Millets for Managing and Reducing the Risk of Developing Diabetes Mellitus. Front Nutr. 2021;8:687428. PubMed 34395493 · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.687428
2. Shobana S, Geetha G, Bai MR, et al. Carbohydrate profiling & glycaemic indices of selected traditional Indian foods. Indian J Med Res. 2022;155(1):56-65. PubMed 35859429 · doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1935_19
3. Malavika M, Shobana S, Vijayalakshmi P, et al. Assessment of quality of minor millets available in the south Indian market & glycaemic index of cooked unpolished little & foxtail millet. Indian J Med Res. 2020;152(4):401-409. PubMed 33380705 · doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_2309_18
4. Dereje N, Bekele G, Nigatu Y, et al. Glycemic Index and Load of Selected Ethiopian Foods: An Experimental Study. J Diabetes Res. 2019;2019:8564879. PubMed 31950066 · doi:10.1155/2019/8564879
5. Ugare R, Chimmad B, Naik R, et al. Glycemic index and significance of barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacae) in type II diabetics. J Food Sci Technol. 2014;51(2):392-5. PubMed 24493902 · doi:10.1007/s13197-011-0516-8
6. Jayasinghe MA, Ekanayake S, Nugegoda DB. Effect of different milling methods on glycaemic response of foods made with finger millet (Eucenea coracana) flour. Ceylon Med J. 2013;58(4):148-52. PubMed 24385055 · doi:10.4038/cmj.v58i4.6305
7. Ren X, Chen J, Molla MM, et al. In vitro starch digestibility and in vivo glycemic response of foxtail millet and its products. Food Funct. 2016;7(1):372-9. PubMed 26505237 · doi:10.1039/c5fo01074h
8. Zhu R, Fan Z, Han Y, et al. Acute Effects of Three Cooked Non-Cereal Starchy Foods on Postprandial Glycemic Responses and in Vitro Carbohydrate Digestion in Comparison with Whole Grains: A Randomized Trial. Nutrients. 2019;11(3). PubMed 30875961 · doi:10.3390/nu11030634
9. Shobana S, Selvi RP, Kavitha V, et al. Development and evaluation of nutritional, sensory and glycemic properties of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) based food products. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2018;27(1):84-91. PubMed 29222884
10. Duraiswamy M, Jayaseelan V, Ramakrishnan J, et al. Effect of Millets Once a Day on Glycaemic Control among Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in a Tertiary Care Setting - A Randomized Controlled Trial. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2024;28(6):581-588. PubMed 39881761 · doi:10.4103/ijem.ijem_314_24
11. United Nations General Assembly. Resolution 75/263: International Year of Millets, 2023. A/RES/75/263; 2021. docs.un.org
12. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. International Year of Millets 2023: About. fao.org (accessed 10 November 2026)
13. Atkinson FS, Foster-Powell K, Brand-Miller JC. International tables of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2008. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(12):2281-3. PubMed 18835944 · doi:10.2337/dc08-1239
14. Pruett A, Aramouni FM, Bean SR, et al. Effect of Flour Particle Size on the Glycemic Index of Muffins Made from Whole Sorghum, Whole Corn, Brown Rice, Whole Wheat, or Refined Wheat Flours. Foods. 2023;12(23). PubMed 38231567 · doi:10.3390/foods12234188
15. Charaka Samhita, English translation: Sutrasthana 27 (Annapanavidhi Adhyaya), Nidanasthana 4 (Prameha Nidana) and Chikitsasthana 6 (Prameha Chikitsa). Charak Samhita New Edition, carakasamhitaonline.com
16. Tavhare SD. Millets as a dietary supplement for managing chemotherapy induced side effects. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2024;15(1):100901. PubMed 38422821 · doi:10.1016/j.jaim.2024.100901
17. Shobana S, Kumari SR, Malleshi NG, et al. Glycemic response of rice, wheat and finger millet based diabetic food formulations in normoglycemic subjects. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2007;58(5):363-72. PubMed 17558728 · doi:10.1080/09637480701252229
18. Widanagamage RD, Ekanayake S, Welihinda J. Carbohydrate-rich foods: glycaemic indices and the effect of constituent macronutrients. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2009;60 Suppl 4:215-23. PubMed 19418327 · doi:10.1080/09637480902849195
19. Shukla K, Srivastava S. Evaluation of finger millet incorporated noodles for nutritive value and glycemic index. J Food Sci Technol. 2014;51(3):527-34. PubMed 24587528 · doi:10.1007/s13197-011-0530-x
20. Chhavi A, Sarita S. Evaluation of composite millet breads for sensory and nutritional qualities and glycemic response. Malays J Nutr. 2012;18(1):89-101. PubMed 23713233
21. Dos Reis Gallo LR, Reis CEG, Mendonça MA, et al. Impact of Gluten-Free Sorghum Bread Genotypes on Glycemic and Antioxidant Responses in Healthy Adults. Foods. 2021;10(10). PubMed 34681305 · doi:10.3390/foods10102256
22. Narayanan J, Sanjeevi V, Rohini U, et al. Postprandial glycaemic response of foxtail millet dosa in comparison to a rice dosa in patients with type 2 diabetes. Indian J Med Res. 2016;144(5):712-717. PubMed 28361824 · doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_551_15
23. Anju T Jr, Sarita S. Suitability of Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica) and Barnyard Millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) for Development of Low Glycemic Index Biscuits. Malays J Nutr. 2010;16(3):361-8. PubMed 22691989
24. Patil KB, Chimmad BV, Itagi S. Glycemic index and quality evaluation of little millet (Panicum miliare) flakes with enhanced shelf life. J Food Sci Technol. 2015;52(9):6078-82. PubMed 26345032 · doi:10.1007/s13197-014-1663-5
25. Lin MH, Wu MC, Lu S, et al. Glycemic index, glycemic load and insulinemic index of Chinese starchy foods. World J Gastroenterol. 2010;16(39):4973-9. PubMed 20954285 · doi:10.3748/wjg.v16.i39.4973
26. Pathak P, Srivastava S, Grover S. Development of food products based on millets, legumes and fenugreek seeds and their suitability in the diabetic diet. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2000;51(5):409-14. PubMed 11103307 · doi:10.1080/096374800427019
27. Geetha K, Yankanchi GM, Hulamani S, et al. Glycemic index of millet based food mix and its effect on pre diabetic subjects. J Food Sci Technol. 2020;57(7):2732-2738. PubMed 32549623 · doi:10.1007/s13197-020-04309-5
28. Mani UV, Prabhu BM, Damle SS, et al. Glycaemic index of some commonly consumed foods in western India. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 1993;2(3):111-4. PubMed 24352140
29. McSweeney MB, Ferenc A, Smolkova K, et al. Glycaemic response of proso millet-based (Panicum miliaceum) products. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2017;68(7):873-880. PubMed 28292202 · doi:10.1080/09637486.2017.1301890
30. Chauhan D, Gujral HS, Perera D, et al. Flaking of millets and its impact on bioactivity, pasting, digestibility, structural and thermal properties. Food Chem. 2024;458:140240. PubMed 38964112 · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140240
31. Kodama K, Kayashita A, Tsuji N, et al. Postprandial Glycemic Responses to Rice Porridge Versus Cooked Rice in Healthy Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Crossover Study. Cureus. 2026;18(7):e112070. PubMed 42553572 · doi:10.7759/cureus.112070
32. Magalhães TLS, Machado AM, da Silva LA, et al. Effects of acute consumption of a beverage based on extruded whole-grain pearl millet flour on glycemic and insulinemic control, food intake, and appetite sensation in eutrophic adults: A randomized cross-over clinical trial. Nutrition. 2024;126:112506. PubMed 39033704 · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2024.112506
33. Shobana S, Anjana RM, Satyavathi CT, et al. Lessons learnt from polishing of rice can be applied to millets. Indian J Med Res. 2026;164(5):737-741. PubMed 42981340 · doi:10.25259/IJMR_21_2026
34. Shobana S, Lakshmipriya N, Bai MR, et al. Even minimal polishing of an Indian parboiled brown rice variety leads to increased glycemic responses. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2017;26(5):829-836. PubMed 28802292
35. Peng X, Fan Z, Wei J, et al. Fresh-Cooked but Not Cold-Stored Millet Exhibited Remarkable Second Meal Effect Independent of Resistant Starch: A Randomized Crossover Trial. Nutrients. 2024;16(23). PubMed 39683424 · doi:10.3390/nu16234030
36. Shumoy H, Van Bockstaele F, Devecioglu D, et al. Effect of sourdough addition and storage time on in vitro starch digestibility and estimated glycemic index of tef bread. Food Chem. 2018;264:34-40. PubMed 29853385 · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.05.019
37. Bora P, Ragaee S, Marcone M. Effect of parboiling on decortication yield of millet grains and phenolic acids and in vitro digestibility of selected millet products. Food Chem. 2019;274:718-725. PubMed 30373000 · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.010
38. Sharma B, Gujral HS. Influence of nutritional and antinutritional components on dough rheology and in vitro protein & starch digestibility of minor millets. Food Chem. 2019;299:125115. PubMed 31288161 · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125115
39. Anjana RM, Sudha V, Abirami K, et al. Dietary profiles and associated metabolic risk factors in India from the ICMR-INDIAB survey-21. Nat Med. 2025;31(11):3813-3824. PubMed 41028544 · doi:10.1038/s41591-025-03949-4
40. Almaski A, Coe S, Lightowler H, Thondre S. Millet intake and risk factors of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. J Food Nutr Disord. 2019;8(3). doi:10.37532/jfnd.2019.8(3).263
41. Dunna D, Jeyakumar A, Bhalekar P, et al. Grain Guardians for the Management of Diabetes-Sorghum, Finger Millet, and Pearl Millet: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutr Rev. 2026. PubMed 42672549 · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuag124
42. Naik NS, Nadiger N, Mukhopadhyay A. Effects of millet consumption on metabolic homeostasis (glycemic control and lipid profiles) in adults: A systematic review. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2026;20(1):103359. PubMed 41447873 · doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2025.103359
43. Magi CE, Rasero L, Mannucci E, et al. Use of ancient grains for the management of diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2024;34(5):1110-1128. PubMed 38553358 · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2024.03.005
44. Simnadis TG, Tapsell LC, Beck EJ. Effect of sorghum consumption on health outcomes: a systematic review. Nutr Rev. 2016;74(11):690-707. PubMed 27694643 · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuw036
45. Ducksbury C, Neale EP, Stefoska-Needham A. The effect of sorghum consumption on markers of chronic disease: A systematic review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023;63(2):159-177. PubMed 34328387 · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1944976
46. Ren X, Yin R, Hou D, et al. The Glucose-Lowering Effect of Foxtail Millet in Subjects with Impaired Glucose Tolerance: A Self-Controlled Clinical Trial. Nutrients. 2018;10(10). PubMed 30326632 · doi:10.3390/nu10101509
47. Almaski A, Coe S, Lightowler H, et al. Finger millet-based muffin decreases insulin response in individuals with prediabetes in a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 2023;129(4):650-659. PubMed 35603664 · doi:10.1017/S0007114522001623
48. Sobhana PP, Kandlakunta B, Nagaraju R, et al. Human clinical trial to assess the effect of consumption of multigrain Indian bread on glycemic regulation in type 2 diabetic participants. J Food Biochem. 2020;44(11):e13465. PubMed 33006193 · doi:10.1111/jfbc.13465
49. Grover R, Khutan H, Jain A, et al. Impact of Adding a Millet Diet on Glycemic Control and Lipid Profile in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Ann Afr Med. 2026;25(1):138-143. PubMed 40700003 · doi:10.4103/aam.aam_69_25
50. Lakshmi Kumari P, Sumathi S. Effect of consumption of finger millet on hyperglycemia in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) subjects. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2002;57(3-4):205-13. PubMed 12602929 · doi:10.1023/a:1021805028738
51. Abdelgadir M, Abbas M, Järvi A, et al. Glycaemic and insulin responses of six traditional Sudanese carbohydrate-rich meals in subjects with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 2005;22(2):213-7. PubMed 15660741 · doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2004.01385.x
52. Ayuo PO, Ettyang GA. Glycaemic responses after ingestion of some local foods by non-insulin dependent diabetic subjects. East Afr Med J. 1996;73(12):782-5. PubMed 9103685
53. Mudjanarko SW, Rahardjo T, Soelistijo SA, et al. One-week sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) grain consumption is insufficient to increase adiponectin levels in prediabetic adults. Endocr Regul. 2023;58(1):11-18. PubMed 38345494 · doi:10.2478/enr-2024-0002
54. Djaja N. The Effect of Adding Job's Tears to Yogurt on Plasma Glycated Albumin, Weight, and Lipid Profile in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Nutr Metab. 2022;2022:1876731. PubMed 35942243 · doi:10.1155/2022/1876731
55. Yang J, Du H, Guo Y, et al. Coarse Grain Consumption and Risk of Cardiometabolic Diseases: A Prospective Cohort Study of Chinese Adults. J Nutr. 2022;152(6):1476-1486. PubMed 35234872 · doi:10.1093/jn/nxac041
56. ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition. Dietary Guidelines for Indians. Hyderabad: ICMR-NIN; 2024. nin.res.in (PDF)
57. Indian Council of Medical Research. ICMR Guidelines for Management of Type 2 Diabetes 2018. New Delhi: ICMR; 2018. icmr.gov.in (PDF)
58. American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 5. Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2026. Diabetes Care. 2026;49(Supplement_1):S89-S131. PubMed 41358898 · doi:10.2337/dc26-S005
59. Shumoy H, Raes K. In vitro starch hydrolysis and estimated glycemic index of tef porridge and injera. Food Chem. 2017;229:381-387. PubMed 28372189 · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.060
60. Sharma H, Chandola HM. Prameha in Ayurveda: correlation with obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes mellitus. Part 2--management of Prameha. J Altern Complement Med. 2011;17(7):589-99. PubMed 21668351 · doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0397
61. Bhishagratna KKL, translator. An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, Vol. 1, Sutrasthana 46. Calcutta; 1907. wisdomlib.org
62. Bhishagratna KKL, translator. An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, Vol. 2, Chikitsasthana 11. Calcutta; 1911. archive.org
63. Acharya RK, Upadhyay BN, Dwivedi LD. Dietary management in prameha. Anc Sci Life. 1996;15(3):176-89. PubMed 22556742
64. Gupta A, Agarwal NK, Byadgi PS. Clinical assessment of dietary interventions and lifestyle modifications in Madhumeha (type- 2 Diabetes Mellitus). Ayu. 2014;35(4):391-7. PubMed 26195901 · doi:10.4103/0974-8520.158997
65. Yadav S, Sharma A, Vishnoi R, et al. A lexical review on Vishaghna Dravyas of Kaideva Nighantu. Ayu. 2022;43(2):45-53. PubMed 37655171 · doi:10.4103/ayu.ayu_199_22
66. Jacob J, Krishnan V, Antony C, et al. The nutrition and therapeutic potential of millets: an updated narrative review. Front Nutr. 2024;11:1346869. PubMed 38746941 · doi:10.3389/fnut.2024.1346869
67. Lalitha Rao B, Husain A. Presence of cyclopiazonic acid in kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) causing 'kodua poisoning' in man and its production by associated fungi. Mycopathologia. 1985;89(3):177-80. PubMed 3921845 · doi:10.1007/BF00447028
68. Antony M, Shukla Y, Janardhanan KK. Potential risk of acute hepatotoxicity of kodo poisoning due to exposure to cyclopiazonic acid. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;87(2-3):211-4. PubMed 12860310 · doi:10.1016/s0378-8741(03)00146-6
69. Deepika C, Hariprasanna K, Das IK, et al. 'Kodo poisoning': cause, science and management. J Food Sci Technol. 2022;59(7):2517-2526. PubMed 35734115 · doi:10.1007/s13197-021-05141-1
70. Zhang HM, Liang FX, Chen R. Ancient records and modern research on the mechanisms of chinese herbal medicines in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2015;2015:747982. PubMed 25815039 · doi:10.1155/2015/747982
71. Yang S, Yang H, Zhang Y. Yao-Shan of traditional Chinese medicine: an old story for metabolic health. Front Pharmacol. 2023;14:1194026. PubMed 37663255 · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1194026
72. Lin HC, Sheu SY, Sheen LY, et al. The gastroprotective effect of the foxtail millet and adlay processing product against stress-induced gastric mucosal lesions in rats. J Tradit Complement Med. 2020;10(4):336-344. PubMed 32695650 · doi:10.1016/j.jtcme.2020.01.003
73. Zhang Y, Gao J, Qie Q, et al. Comparative Analysis of Flavonoid Metabolites in Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica) with Different Eating Quality. Life (Basel). 2021;11(6). PubMed 34207187 · doi:10.3390/life11060578
74. Meng FD, Yuan L, Lu DD, et al. Anti-tumor effect of coix seed based on the theory of medicinal and food homology. World J Clin Oncol. 2023;14(12):593-605. PubMed 38179404 · doi:10.5306/wjco.v14.i12.593
75. Safavi F, Andrade-Cetto A, Escandón-Rivera SM. Diabetes and traditional remedies in Medieval Persia: a historical perspective. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1673440. PubMed 41311837 · doi:10.3389/fphar.2025.1673440
76. Jideani IA, Jideani VA. Developments on the cereal grains Digitaria exilis (acha) and Digitaria iburua (iburu). J Food Sci Technol. 2011;48(3):251-9. PubMed 23572743 · doi:10.1007/s13197-010-0208-9
77. Jain S, Bhatia G, Barik R, et al. Antidiabetic activity of Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn. in alloxan induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;127(2):325-8. PubMed 19900528 · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.10.038
78. Gaitan E, Lindsay RH, Reichert RD, et al. Antithyroid and goitrogenic effects of millet: role of C-glycosylflavones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1989;68(4):707-14. PubMed 2921306 · doi:10.1210/jcem-68-4-707
79. Elnour A, Hambraeus L, Eltom M, et al. Endemic goiter with iodine sufficiency: a possible role for the consumption of pearl millet in the etiology of endemic goiter. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(1):59-66. PubMed 10617947 · doi:10.1093/ajcn/71.1.59
80. Anitha S, Upadhyay S, Grando S, et al. Does consumption of pearl millet cause goiter? A systematic review of existing evidence. Front Nutr. 2024;11:1323336. PubMed 38515523 · doi:10.3389/fnut.2024.1323336
81. Nakarani UM, Singh D, Suthar KP, et al. Nutritional and phytochemical profiling of nutracereal finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) genotypes. Food Chem. 2021;341(Pt 2):128271. PubMed 33166822 · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128271
82. Teklu D, Gashu D, Joy EJM, et al. Differences in the nutritional quality of improved finger millet genotypes in Ethiopia. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):460. PubMed 38172143 · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-48749-3
83. Reddy BHR, Thankachan P, Hatakayama M, et al. A Natural Low Phytic Acid Finger Millet Accession Significantly Improves Iron Bioavailability in Indian Women. Front Nutr. 2021;8:791392. PubMed 35402470 · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.791392
84. Hemalatha S, Platel K, Srinivasan K. Influence of germination and fermentation on bioaccessibility of zinc and iron from food grains. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61(3):342-8. PubMed 16969377 · doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602524
85. Platel K, Eipeson SW, Srinivasan K. Bioaccessible mineral content of malted finger millet (Eleusine coracana), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and barley (Hordeum vulgare). J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58(13):8100-3. PubMed 20560601 · doi:10.1021/jf100846e
86. Wenndt AJ, Sudini HK, Mehta R, et al. Spatiotemporal assessment of post-harvest mycotoxin contamination in rural North Indian food systems. Food Control. 2021;126:108071. PubMed 34345120 · doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108071